Introduction: What Is Meditation?
The word meditation is one of those common words, which we encounter very often in everyday speech and rarely think of all the nuances of meaning, which it may contain. The context in which it is going to be discussed here is religious and the religion discussed is Islam. Islam like Judaism and Christianity is a monotheistic religion, but there are other religions too, where meditation is an accepted practice, that might be described as polytheistic for example Hinduism or non-theistic like Jainism. Therefore it is necessary to construct such a definition of meditation that would do justice to a whole range of experiences taking place within different religious frames.
Meditation encompasses an extremely broad range of practices connected to many of the world’s religious and philosophical traditions. It generally includes refraining from random, disturbing thoughts and fantasies, and aims at calming and focusing of the mind on some specific object. Sometimes it requires a strenuous effort while at other times it is entirely an effortless activity experienced as just happening. Different practices involve focusing one’s attention differently. A variety of positions and postures might be involved for example sitting cross-legged, standing, lying down, kneeling and walking. At times certain devices like prayer beads (Islamic tasbih and Roman Catholic rosary for example), symbolic representations of the deity, singing and dancing or even consumption of narcotic substances might be used to induce the right frame of mind.
The stated purpose of meditation varies almost as much as the practices. It has been seen as a means of gaining experiential (practical) insight into the nature of reality both in the case of religious and spiritually inclined persons as well as those who profess to follow no religion at all. It is also perceived as a very effective way of drawing closer or even becoming one with the Ultimate Reality irrespective of what one might think it to be. Meditation thus requires and therefore develops: power of concentration, greater awareness, self-discipline and calmness of mind.
In the samadhi or shamatha, or concentrative techniques of meditation, the mind is kept closely focused on a particular word, image, sound, person or idea. This form of meditation is found in Buddhist and Hindu traditions including Yoga as well as in medieval Christianity, Jewish KabaIa (mystical trend in Judaism) and some practices of Sufis. Related to this method is a silent repetition in the mind of a memorised passage from the scripture or a particular word. Dhikr or remembrance of God would fall into this category. So would simran and nam japna of Sikhism.
In vipassana (insight, or seeing things as they are) type of meditation the mind is trained to notice each perception or thought that passes through it, but without “stopping” on anyone. This is a characteristic form of meditation in Buddhism, especially Theravada and Zen but does not seem to play much role in Islam.
In annapuna meditation attention is focused on breath. The Sufis used this practice as well, and it is often alleged that it was adopted under the influence of Indian, both Hindu and Buddhist, traditions.
As the concept and practice of meditation are assumed here to have as its inspiration religious and spiritually charged circumstances it is important to shortly define the term religion itself. Religion can simply be described as a set of systems, which aims at bringing its follower to the source of Truth. Most of the time religion would have at its centre a scripture, often divinely revealed (ex Quran in Islam). That would be then interpreted through theological writings over a period of time. But a religion also necessarily develops a practical arrangement actually enabling its followers to reach God or whatever other object/objects the religious practice revolves around. It has to have a practical way of worship, certain symbols and ideas, and a body of worshipers - a religious community. This community then allows an individual to integrate and loose himself within it thus partaking in the means and ways the community has of attaining the Reality and salvation.
One of such ways and means is meditation. But as further scrutiny will reveal meditation is very often linked to mysticism. Mysticism is a unique experience, invariably taking place in a religious context. The person experiencing it interprets this experience as an encounter with the ultimate divine reality. Further, this experience seems to be direct and cannot be explained in rational way. It brings about a deep sense of unity and of living on a level of being other than the ordinary.1
At times and for some people this experience can be gained in a natural and effortless way without any special endeavour on one’s side. Others, it eludes totally. But the human mind longs to belong to the Ultimate and experience It at close quarters. From there arises the need for a mentor, a teacher - Muslim pir or murshid, Hindu or Sikh guru, Hassidic rabbi etc. A charismatic leader gathers around himself his followers and mediates their access to salvation. In certain cases the scriptures can replace the need for a living guru (Guru Granth of Sikhism). Sometimes the tomb of the saint becomes the place of pilgrimage and the saint performs the same functions after death as were ascribed to him during his lifetime mediates and acts as a bridge between the believer and God. This is common both to Sufism as well as some branches of Christianity.
In short, meditation seems to be a way of gaining peep at the ultimate reality through extraordinary experience brought about by it; this phenomenon is found in many religious traditions.
Islamic Mysticism: Tasawwuf
Mystical trend in Islam is called Tasawwuf and it is an act of devoting oneself to a way of life aiming at achieving a mystical union with God. Broadly, it can be described as an intensification of Islamic faith and practice.2
There exist a number of propositions for the derivation of the term Sufi as the followers of Tasawwuf or Sufism are called. Some say that it comes from the Arabic word safa, which means pure. Others think that it refers to suffa (a raised floor or a bench in the Prophet’s mosque in Medina, where some virtuous individuals used to sit and spend their time in pious devotion) or even saff (a row, like the rows formed by the believers gathered for a congregational prayer in a mosque). But the most commonly accepted definition refers to the word suf, which means wool. This seems to point to coarse woollen garments worn by the mystics and symbolising their voluntary poverty and renunciation of the world and all its pleasures. Gradually, the term Sufi came to designate a group, who differentiated itself from the others in the community of believers by putting emphasis on certain specific teachings and practices of the Quran and the Sunna. By the 9th century A.C., representatives of this group adopted the term Tasawwuf or Sufism as a designation of their worldview and ideology.
In general, Sufis have always looked upon themselves as true Muslims, who take most seriously God’s call to find His presence both in the world spread in front of them and the self. They put stress on the inner life of the being, contemplation of one’s actions, spiritual development and cultivation of the soul. On theological level, Sufis speak of God’s mercy (rahma), gentleness (halima, r’afa) and majesty (jalal). But at the same time they consider The Truth (AI Haqq3) not to be obvious to the uninisiated; rather, the truth is hidden and can be accessed through His help alone. For though Allah is Al Zahir (The Evident) He is also AI Batin (The Hidden), as well as Al Fattah (The Opener).
The Sufis trace the origin of Tasawwuf to the sayings and practice of the Prophet himself. Even before receiving the Divine revelation, the Prophet used to spend days and nights in solitary meditation in the cave of Hira near Mekka. It was on one such an occasion that he saw an apparition in the form of an angel who asked him to recite a verse. The Prophet said he could not read, that he was illiterate (ummi) but after the insistence of the angel he recited after him a sentence, which was the first revelation of the Quran (96: 1-5)4. That is why Sufis attach such a great importance to meditation and dhikr5. Dhikr and meditation were the forms of Prophet’s prayers before his Prophethood.
The Sufis also emphasize the Prophet’s self-imposed poverty, contempt of wealth and a luxurious life, as well as his fasts, night vigils and additional prayers. The Companions of the Prophet faithfully followed his footsteps and lived simple lives. The Pious Caliphs refused to indulge themselves even in ordinary comforts in spite of having the wealth of the whole Islamic world at their disposal. They considered the love of wealth as one of the greatest obstacles in the path of their devotion to God.
Like in other branches of Islamic learning, Sufism too believes that the true knowledge is the knowledge of God and it is passed down from a master to a disciple. The master’s oral instructions give life to the articles of faith. Thus master’s fundamental concern is to shape the character of the disciple and help him in attaining his goal, which is to come near to God and become one with Him. This concept of pir-murid6 relationship emphasises the personal dimension of the relationship between the Divine and the human.
The Sufi Concept of Meditation (Dhikr And Muraqaba)
Sufism, the form which mysticism has taken in Islam, is not so much a set of doctrines as a mode of thinking and feeling within a specific religious domain. It represents in a way, a reaction against the intellectualism, cold formalism and ritualism of Muslim orthodoxy.
Mysticism has been traced to the Prophet and the times of the Pious Caliphs but it gathered strength during the Umayyad dynasty (660-750 A.C.) and grew further over the centuries. Islam prohibited its adherents from practicing the mortifying austerity and asceticism of the Christian monks and Hindu yogis. But in spite of these religious injunctions, asceticism kept on gaining ground within Islamic community, with large number of pious worshippers seeking to secure salvation through devotional practices (often frowned upon by the orthodoxy), meditation and retirement from the society. The worldliness and absolutism of the Umayyad caliphs and their regime were yet another factor pushing pious men to sever their connections with the obviously corrupting world. Turning away from it they found strength in contemplating the mysteries of God, the soul and the creation.
The early ascetics and their spiritual descendents, the Sufis, usually wore, as already mentioned, the undyed coarse woollen mantles similar to those worn by the Christian ascetics. That is why the term Sufi is usually considered to come from Arabic word suf or wool. Gradually Sufi came to designate a very varied group of individuals who differentiated themselves from others by emphasising certain specific teachings and practices mentioned in the Quran and the traditions of the Prophet of Islam.
Though originally Sufism was just a pious mystical trend within Islam with certain individuals being more known than others, there was no attempt to give it any organisational form. But the twelfth century saw a crystallisation of a number of silsilas, or orders. Now certain chains of lineages through which different Sufis could be traced were put in place connecting them with a spiritual hierarchy going back to the Prophet, mostly through’ Ali and sometimes through Abu Bakr, giving them legitimacy and enhancing the popular appeal through a firm connection with a charismatic and historical predecessor.7
Without going into details of early and subsequent development of Sufi orders8 (sing. silsila pl. salasil meaning “chain, lineage”; or tariqa pi. taruq meaning “way”) it can be safely assumed that the different Sufi orders were and still are founded on a unique system based on the relationship between the master and a disciple, in Arabic murshid (director, mentor) and murid (aspirant). To follow the Sufi path (tariqa) it has always been necessary to accept the authority and guidance of those who have already passed through its various stages (sing. maqam, pi. maqamat). The Sufi masters believe that every man has an inherent ability to achieve a release from the self and obtain a union with God. However, this ability being merely latent, the aspirant cannot attain it by hirilself, without the guidance of a mentor. It is only a mentor that can lead him to the ways of proper meditation so that finally he may acquire an insight into spiritual truth. According to Sufism, m’arifa, which means gnosis, cannot be reached through intellectual exercise but solely through ecstatic states. A celebrated theorist of ethical mysticism, Abu Hamid Muhammad al Ghazzali (d. 1111), who is famous within the mainstream Islam as an authority on fikh (jurisprudence) as well as for his perfectly argued and clearly articulated attacks on the philosophers, writes of his own realization of Truth: “I knew that the complete mystic ‘way’ includes both intellectual belief and practical activity; the latter consists in getting rid of the obstacles in the self and in stripping off its base characteristics and vicious morals, so that the heart may attain to freedom from what is not God and to constant recollection of Him... It became clear to me, however, that what is most distinctive of mysticism is something which cannot be apprehended by study, but only by immediate experience (dhawq - literally ‘tasting’), by ecstasy and by a moral change.”9
The Sufi who sets out to seek God calls himself a traveller (salik). He advances by slow stages (maqamat) along a path (tariqa) towards union with Reality (Fana fiI Haqq). This path, according to al-Sarraj (d.988), author of “Kitab al-Luma’ fi ‘I-Tasawwuf’10, the oldest comprehensive treatise on Sufi teaching, consists of the following seven “stages”:
1. Repentance (tawabah)
2. Fear of the Lord (wara’)
3. Renunciation (zuhd)
4. Poverty (faqr)
5. Patience or endurance (sabr)
6. Trust in God (tawakkul)
7. Satisfaction/contentment (rida)11
The book of Sirraj in which the stages were thus enumerated, was written in Iran in tenth century, much before AI-Ghazalli, during the period when Sufism was first being consolidated as a coherent body of spiritual teachings and thus gives one a comprehensive picture of how the mystical path was in harmony with all aspects of Islamic religious law and doctrine. At the same time the author insists upon a multilevel interpretation of the sacred text (Quran), which corresponds to the different levels of understanding capabilities of listeners.
This notion of degrees of knowledge and nearness to God is one of the fundamental characteristics of the mystical teachings of Sufism in general till today.
Virtually nobody can travel along the path without a guiding mentor or the higher levels of knowledge, understanding and proximity to God would elude him forever. So the stages are inherent part of the path and define the ascetic and ethical discipline of the Sufi. By strictly adhering to the above seven stages, the salik is blessed with ten states (sing. hal, pl. ahwal) meditation (muraqaba), nearness (qurb), love (mahabba), fear (khawt), hope (rija), longing (shauq), intimacy (uns), tranquillity (itminan), contemplation (mushahada), and certainty (yaqin)12; all with God as the referent (object). While the stages themselves can be arrived at and achieved through one’s own effort, under the guidance of a mentor, the ‘states’ are spiritual feelings and dispositions over which a man has no control and are a gift from God. Also, as ‘states’ are divine gifts they can take many forms and colours and are often beyond description.
A Sufi’s “path” is not traversed until the aspirant has passed all the “stages”, achieving perfection in preceding one before advancing to the next, and also having experienced whatever “states” it pleases God to bestow upon him. Then only is he permanently raised to the higher planes of consciousness, which Sufis call “gnosis” (marif’at) and the Truth (haqiqat), where the “seeker” (talib) becomes the “knower” or “gnostic” (arit), and realise the knowledge of Reality.
The first place in the list of “stages” is occupied by repentance (tawabah). Repentance is described as the awakening of the soul from the slumber of heedlessness, so that one feels contrition for past disobedience. To be truly penitent, one must at once abandon sin and firmly resolve that he will never return to wrongdoing in the future. Turning one’s back on the vanities of the world, one then has to seek out a teacher, pir-o-murshid, to guide him on the way to perfection.
The second stage which the aspirant must attain and which is, as it were, necessitated by the first, is called wara’, which can be translated as “fear of the Lord” for God detests whatever hinders the heart from giving attention to Him. Hakim Sana’i of Ghazna (d.113!), author of “Hadiqat al-Haqiqa” (“Garden of Reality”) writes:
“If a thing hold you back on the Way, what matter if it be faith or infidelity? Ifit keeps you far from the Friend13, what matter if the image be foul or fair?”14
Fear of the Lord leads to the third stage, zuhd or “detachment”. Zahid is one that has renounced the world in order to give oneself to God.
Logically, the next stage or “poverty” follows. Voluntary poverty is the Sufi’s pride as it was the pride of the Prophet (“Faqr fakhri” - “Poverty is my pride” states hadith). Strictly speaking, Sufi chooses neither poverty nor wealth: his only preference is for what God sends or bestows.
“Patience” or what the following stage consists of is a virtue, without which the depths of poverty could not be borne. Thus it is said to be the better part of faith if not the whole of it.
“Trust or self-surrender” is an attitude of one who entrusts himself completely to God. It springs from the very fundamental Islamic position and forms a part of its creed (aqida). Its roots are in tauhid or belief in One God. Al Ghazali says: “Tawaqul or God reliance is a stage of religion and a state of progress of the believers. Rather it is the highest state of those who are near God... The meaning of God reliance is intellect, shariat and tauhid, the intermingling of three elements in a proportionate manner.”15
The last stage or rida denotes a condition in which the spiritual traveller is always pleased with whatever providence sends his way. Junaid (d. 910) says: “He is the greatest amongst men who has subordinated his will to that of the Lord and is content with His dealings.”16
To emphasize that the aim and end of Sufism and its Way is to reach God, the Truth (Al Haqq) and not merely to pass through so many stages and experience so many states let us recall this anecdotel? about Junaid found in “Tadhkarat ul-auliya” of Farid ud din Attar (d. 1229).
“For forty successive years Junaid kept awake the whole nights in his devotional practices. Thereupon the pride was born in him that he had reached the spiritual pinnacle. The Divine Voice reprimanded Junaid and said, ‘The time has arrived when you should be declared a heretic.’ He cried, ‘Lord! What is my fault?’ The reply came, ‘Could there be a greater sin than that ‘you’ in you still survives (i.e. your ego is not yet dead)?’ He sighed and bowed his head in submission saying,’ He who attaineth not to the union of the Lord, all his virtues are sins.’”
It might be said that spiritual practice is the core of Sufism and Sufi writers have certainly elaborated upon theories and metaphysical points of view, but it is in meditation, prayer, fasting, and day-to-day practices that we find the life of the mystical path. A great many Sufi writings in fact treat these kinds of practices in great details. IS This is particularly true of the meditative practices associated with the “recollection” (dhikr) of the names of God. Dhikr Allah or remembrance of God refers to invocation of the Divine Name. The Quran often speaks of dhikr as an act of worship: “Remember Me, I will remember you” (2: 152). “Invoke the name of your Lord and devote yourself to Him with an utter devotion” (73:8) and “Remembrance of God is greatest.” (29:45)
Dhikr is regarded as the most important element of Sufi meditation. For the Sufis, dhikr is a method of spiritual concentration consisting of an invocation of the Divine Name or repetition of a sacred formula under the direction of a spiritual master belonging to a legitimate mystical order with an authentic chain of transmission (silsila). The spiritual master or sheikh gives the practitioner the necessary permission to perform dhikr.
The performance of dhikr is essentially a spiritual exercise through which Sufis are able to experience God’s presence in every fibre of their very being. it is through dhikr that they achieve fana’ or “annihilation” and subside in God for ever (baqa’). Junaid says: “Whosoever repeats the Name of the Lord merges into the Name and the Name merges into the Lord.”19 Another Sufi says: “The first stage of dhikr is to forget self, and the last stage is the effacement of the worshipper in the act of worship, and total absorption in the object of worship.”20
Dhikr was performed both communally and in seclusion. The former enabled senior Sufi disciples to supervise the progress of their juniors. The dhikr-i-khafi, recollection performed either mentally or in a very low voice, was recommended by the Naqshbandis.21 The Chishtiya22 and Qadriya23 generally performed dhikr-i-jali, which was recited aloud. Both forms of dhikr required control of breath, of inhalation and exhalation. The formulas of dhikr itself differed from one order to another, but generally involved the recitation of various syllables of the kalima (Muslim profession of faith) or one or some of the many names of God, for example: “Glory be to God” (Subhan Allah) or “There is no god but God” (La illaha lil allah), with an intense concentration of every mental and physical faculty upon the single word or phrase. The chanting might be spoken or silent - just repeated in the mind without uttering the words themselves and the Sufis always attached great value to this repetition or litany for it enabled them to enjoy an uninterrupted communion with God.
Sahl ibn Abdullah al Tustari (d.896)24, a noted Sufi of an early period, asked one of his disciples to keep on saying “Allah! Allah!” throughout the day, without any intermission. When the disciple acquired the habit of doing so, Sahl instructed him to repeat the same words during the night, until they came forth from his lips even while he was asleep. Finally the disciple’s whole being was absorbed by the thought of Allah.
Dhikr popularised the used of tasbih (rosary), consisting of 99 or 100 beads to facilitated the recitation. Some orders used rosaries of 301 or 1000 beads. The rosary acquired symbolic importance through its use in ceremonies of initiation and other rituals of the orders. It was also a symbol of authority. The rosary of the founder of the branch of the particular order was inherited by his successors, being especially reverenced since it was impregnated with the baraka (blessings) of a lifetime’s recital of divine names.
Dhikr has a variety of forms, which have been elaborated upon in the Sufi writings: dhikr-ijali, dhikr-i-khafi, habs-i-dam, pas-i-anfas, naf-i-asbat. Breathing exercises, controlling respiration, and adopting specific sitting postures go with dhikr.
Dhikr-i-jali consists of sitting in the usual prayer postures and loudly reciting the word “Allah” from one’s left side, and then from one’s throat. Repetition of the word “Allah” may grow more and more intense, and louder with each successive breath, repeating being done first from one’s right knee and then from the left knee.
Some Sufis fold their legs under them and begin repeating “Allah” (first from their right and then from their left knees). The process goes on and on like this. Thus salik may, seated in the same position, shout the word “Allah” first from left knee, then from the right, then from the left side, and then, finally, in front, still louder.
Some Sufis may be observed sitting with their eyes closed in prayer in a position facing the Kabah, uttering LA; drawing the sound as if from the navel up to the left shoulder; then uttering ILLAHA (the sound rising from the brain). Finally ALLAH is repeated from the left side with lots of energy and stress. These exercises are called dharb (strikes). Dharb is performed from all sides: front, navel, brain, etc.
Dhikr-i-khafi is a practice of remembering God silently. Following phrases “Allahu Samiun” (God is All-Hearing), “Allahu Alimun” (God is All-Knowing) and “Allahu Basirun” (God is All-Seeing) are successively recited with eyes shut and lips closed. Recitation continues with what is described as the tongue of the heart. Each exhalation of breath begins with La Ilaha, and each inhalation with illallah. The whole process or technique is set up in numerous manuals, frequently difficult to understand without a commentary of an experienced shaikh.
Habs-i-dam is a term standing for “restraining breathing”. Holding his breath the Sufi traveller conceives of his heart (qalb) as continuously repeating LA ILAHA ILALLAH. With passage of time the practice becomes intensified to the extent that one can repeat the creed several hundred times within the span of one breath.
Pas-i-anfas is a practice where the Sufi concentrates his inward eye on his heart, which he imagines to be engraved with the word “Allah”. Furthermore, he imagines that every inhaling of his is producing the sound “Allah” and exhaling, “Hu”, making up the phrase: “Allah Hu” (There is God).
The exercises known as mahmuda and nasira focus one’s concentration on a part of the body while practicing meditation. Mahmuda implies concentrating on the tip of the nose while in nasira one’s concentration is directed towards the middle of the forehead.
Naf-i-asbat or “negation and affirmation” is yet another method of practicing dhikr. The worshipper sits in the posture of prayer facing towards Makkah. He imagines that he is bringing up LA ILAHA from his navel, and. then he expels his breath by a jerk in the direction of his right shoulder. He then utters ILLA ALLAH, jerking his head towards his heart, as if imprinting these words upon it.
Dhikr was followed by meditation to allow the individual thoughts of Sufis to emerge and envelop them. Generally, a dervish meditated on some particular verse of the Quran and at the same time the image of the pir was recalled to mind.
Muraqaba, the Arabic word for meditation literally means “vigilance” or “awareness”.
It is an aspect of contemplation (tafakkur), waiting upon a spiritual presence, a permanent state of attentiveness. The Prophet said: “My eye sleeps, but my heart is awake.” According to another hadith, he said: “Worship God as though you see Him, for even if you do not see Him, He sees you.” Anyone who feels sure that God is always watching over him will devote himself to contemplating God and no evil thoughts will find their way to his heart.
This is how the practices accompanying muraqaba (deep contemplation) are carried out as given in the chapter on “Dhikr, Muraqabah, Tauhid, Daur and Halat” (“Remembrance, Meditation, Oneness of God, Whirling and Ecstasy”) of ‘Awariful Ma’arif ’25 of Shahabuddin Suhrawardi (d. 1234):
“The exercises of muraqibah (fearful contemplation) and of tauhid (the unity of God) are as follows:
(a) On their heels, elbows touching, the dervishes sit in a circle; and simultaneously make slight movements of the head and of the body.
(b) Or they balance themselves slowly right to left, left to right; and incline the body forwards and rearwards.
(c) Or, seated, they begin these motions in measured cadence with a staid countenance, eyes closed, or fixed upon the ground; and continue them on foot.”
After that follows the daur (rotating dance) accompanied by cries “Ya Allah! Ya Hu”. The halat (ecstasy) is achieved by the combination of dhikr, muraqaba, daur and putting redhot irons (called gul - the red rose - by the participating dervishes) in their mouths, which however show no wounds next day.
Al Hujweri (d. 1077) author of another Sufi manual “Kashaf al Mahjub” (“The Revelation of the Mystery”), writing much before Suhrawardi, says: “When self-will vanishes in this world, contemplation is attained, and when contemplation is firmly established, there is no difference between this world and the next.”
In some orders such as Naqshbandi, muraqaba or meditation begins with the repetition of “Allahu hadiri” (God is present before me), “Allahu naziri” (God sees me), “Allahu mai” (God is with me). God’s name may be recited aloud or silently, mentally, as one pleases. Then the worshipper mediates upon some verses of the Quran. The following verses are most often meditated upon:
“He is First. He is Last. He is Manifest, Hidden, and The One Who Knows All Things.” (57:3)
“He is with you wherever you may be.” (57:4)
“We are closer to man than his jugular vein.” (50: 15)
“In whichever direction you turn, there is the face of God.” (2:109)
“God encompasses all things.” (4:125)
“All that is on earth shall pass away, but the face of the Lord shall abide, suffused with brilliance, majesty and glory.” (55:26-27)
Thus meditation means forgetting all else besides God and is an intense remembrance of Him. Those who have undergone a rigorous training under a guidance of a spiritual mentor may achieve this even when not in their teacher’s presence. But though all these practices set Sufis apart from the body of the community, they were always very much an integral part of it and played a major role in shaping the popular face of Islam. In general, the Sufis have always looked upon themselves as Muslims who take very seriously God’s call to perceive His presence both in the world and the self. They tend to put more stress on looking inward then outward, on contemplation over action, spiritual exercise and development of the self over dry legalism, and cultivation of the soul over social, worldly interaction with people. Sufism considered itself, and does so today too, a science of how to attain a direct knowledge of God and a personal experience of the Divine.
The aim of meditation in Sufism is to activate spirituality. As the Sufis believe that the heart is the centre of spirituality, therefore it is the heart that needs to be activated by turning to practice of meditation. Once the heart is activated a Sufi can reach his goal.
As already mentioned above, dhikr may take a very vivacious and animated mode leading to foot play (daur, raqs) and dancing, accompanied by chant, which might change to almost singing. The Sufi literature often talks of yet another specifically Sufi practice facilitating direct approach to God by activating the heart. It is called sarna’ or “listening to music”. Sarna’ is considered by the Sufis a very effective and powerful technique of achieving the longed for nearness and knowledge of God. Etymologically it is derived from an Arabic verb sarnia, which means a “hearing” or “audition”. The word itself does not occur in the Quran in this meaning, but in classical Arabic it meant “a singing or musical performance”.
Certain theologians hold that listening to instrumental music is permissible as long as its aim is not merely to amuse oneself, and under-condition that it does not induce sinful thoughts. The lawfulness of music, and connected with it, singing and dancing, have been a subject of long controversy within Islam. Importance was attached to this question when sarna’ was adopted as a spiritual exercise and “as a means of revelation attained through ecstasy” by the Sufi circles in the late second or early third century Hijra (9th or 10th A.C.). Thus it was in Sufism that sarna’ acquired its technical meaning of listening to music, singing, chanting and rhythmical recitation meant to produce religious emotions and ecstasy (wajd) of knowing God most directly.
All the manuals of Sufism starting with the earliest ones usually have a chapter on sarna’ or “audition”. As it was a controversial subject, usually they try to justify its use and explain its role in reaching God. Abu Bakr al-Kalabadhi (d. 988) writes in “Kitab al-Ta’arruflimadhhab ahl al-tasawwuf’26:
“Audition is a resting after the fatigue of the (spiritual) moment, and a recreation for those who experience (spiritual) states, as well as a means of awakening the consciences of those who busy themselves with other things... I heard Abu’s-Qasim ai-Baghdadi say: ‘Audition is of two kinds. One class of man listens to discourse, and derives therefrom an admonition: such a man listens discriminately and with his heart (as the seat of the intellect) present. The other class listens to music (melody), which is the food of the spirit: and when the spirit obtains its food, it attains its proper station, and turns aside from the government of the body; and then there appears in the listener a commotion and a movement.’ AI-Junaid said: ‘The mercy (of God) descends upon the poor man on three occasions: when he is eating, for he only eats when he is in need to do so; when he speaks, for he only speaks when he is compelled; and during audition, for he only listens in a state of ecstasy.’”
Like all the other Sufi practices sarna’ too is performed under leadership of the sheikh or the teacher, who initiates and ends it with the recitation of Fatiha or the opening chapter of the Quran27 and controls its every stage as well as duration. Very often it is performed on a Thursday evening and today’s qawalli recitals at the shrines of the saints are a continuation of the same traditional practice. It must be remembered that all Persian and Urdu poetry including mystical is intended to be chanted, either to a regular tune or in free musical improvisation. The best performers (of the contemporary: late Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Abida Parveen) combine a formal chant with occasional outbursts of improvisation stirring themselves and their listeners to an ecstatic state. In Iran “Masnavi” of Maulana Rumi is often used on such occasions and in the Indian subcontinent, poetry of Amir Khusraw, Bhule Shah (who wrote in Punjabi), Shah Latif (writing in Sindhi) as well as others.
